Chapter 6 TOWNS, TRADERS AND CRAFTSPERSONS

Administrative Centres

Medieval towns served various functions, including administrative centers, temple towns, commercial hubs, and centers for craft production. Thanjavur, the capital of the Cholas, exemplifies a town combining these roles. It was a beautiful town situated near the Kaveri River, famous for the Rajarajeshvara temple built by King Rajaraja Chola. The town was bustling with markets selling grains, spices, textiles, and jewelry. Water was supplied through wells and tanks. Artisans like the Saliya weavers were known for producing fine cotton for the king and nobility, while sculptors at Svamimalai created exquisite bronze idols and bell metal lamps.

Temple Towns And Pilgrimage Centres

Temple towns, such as Thanjavur, Bhillasvamin (Vidisha), Somnath, Kanchipuram, Madurai, and Tirupati, were important centers of urbanization. Temples played a central role in the economy and society, with rulers endowing them with land and money for rituals, feeding pilgrims, and celebrating festivals. Pilgrims also made donations to temples. The wealth generated by temples financed trade and banking, attracting priests, workers, artisans, and traders who settled nearby, leading to the growth of these towns. Pilgrimage centers like Vrindavan, Tiruvannamalai, and Ajmer also evolved into townships, often fostering religious coexistence.

A Network Of Small Towns

From the 8th century onwards, numerous small towns emerged across the subcontinent, often developing from larger villages. These towns typically featured a mandapika (later mandi) where villagers sold their produce and market streets called hatta (later haat) lined with shops. Various artisans, such as potters, oil pressers, sugar makers, smiths, and stonemasons, also had dedicated streets. Traders, both local and traveling, frequented these towns to buy local goods and sell products from distant regions like horses, salt, and spices.

Often, a samanta or zamindar would establish a fortified palace in or near these towns. They levied taxes on traders, artisans, and trade goods, sometimes granting the right to collect these taxes to local temples. These rights were documented in inscriptions.

Traders Big And Small

A variety of traders existed, including the Banjaras, who were primarily horse traders. Many traders, especially those involved in long-distance trade, formed associations or guilds, like the Manigramam and Nanadesi in South India, to protect their interests. These guilds traded extensively within the peninsula and with Southeast Asia and China.

Prominent trading communities included the Chettiars and Marwari Oswals. Gujarati traders, such as the Hindu Baniyas and Muslim Bohras, engaged in significant trade with ports in the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, East Africa, Southeast Asia, and China. They exported textiles and spices and imported gold, ivory, tin, Chinese pottery, and silver. Western coastal towns were home to diverse traders from regions like Arabia, Persia, China, and Syria. Indian spices and textiles were highly sought after in European markets, eventually attracting European traders to India.

Crafts In Towns

Towns were centers of specialized crafts. The artisans of Bidar gained fame for their intricate inlay work on copper and silver, known as Bidri ware. The Panchalas or Vishwakarma community, comprising goldsmiths, bronzesmiths, blacksmiths, masons, and carpenters, were vital for constructing temples, palaces, and other large structures. Weavers, such as the Saliyar or Kaikkolars, became prosperous communities, contributing to temples. Craftsmanship in areas like cotton cleaning, spinning, and dyeing became specialized, independent professions.

A Closer Look: Hampi, Masulipatnam And Surat

Hampi

Hampi, located in the Krishna-Tungabhadra basin, was the nucleus of the Vijayanagara Empire (founded 1336). Its magnificent ruins showcase a well-fortified city built using interlocking stone techniques without mortar. In the 16th century, Hampi was a bustling commercial and cultural center, attracting Muslim merchants, Chettis, and European traders. The city's architecture featured splendid arches, domes, and pillared halls. Temples served as hubs for cultural activities, with devadasis performing in the Virupaksha temple. The Mahanavami festival was a significant event. Hampi declined after the Vijayanagara Empire's defeat in 1565 by the Deccani Sultans.

Surat

Surat in Gujarat was a major emporium for western trade during the Mughal period and served as a gateway to West Asia via the Gulf of Ormuz. It was also a departure point for pilgrims to Mecca. The city was cosmopolitan, with people of various castes and creeds coexisting. In the 17th century, European trading companies like the Portuguese, Dutch, and English established factories there. Surat's textiles, known for their gold lace borders (zari), were in demand across West Asia, Africa, and Europe. The city had large banking houses, and its hundis (promissory notes) were honored in distant markets. Surat began to decline in the late 17th century due to the weakening of the Mughal Empire, competition from Bombay, and the loss of markets.

Masulipatnam

Masulipatnam, a port town on the Krishna river delta, became a significant center of activity in the 17th century. Both the Dutch and English East India Companies vied for control of this port. The Qutb Shahi rulers implemented monopolies on trade to regulate the sale of textiles and spices, preventing the East India Companies from gaining complete control. Competition among merchants, nobles, and European traders made the city prosperous. However, following the Mughal annexation of Golconda in 1686-1687, and as the English East India Company shifted its focus to Bombay, Calcutta, and Madras, Masulipatnam declined in the 18th century.

New Towns And Traders

During the 16th and 17th centuries, European demand for Indian spices and textiles led to the formation of East India Companies by the English, Dutch, and French. Initially, Indian traders like Mulla Abdul Ghafur and Virji Vora, who owned many ships, competed with them. However, European Companies used their naval power to dominate sea trade and compelled Indian traders to work as their agents. Ultimately, the English emerged as the most successful commercial and political power in India.

The increased demand for goods like textiles spurred the growth of crafts such as spinning, weaving, bleaching, and dyeing. More people took up these crafts, leading to refined Indian textile designs. However, craftspersons gradually lost their independence, working under an advance system where they were obligated to weave cloth for European agents, often reproducing specific designs provided by the company. The 18th century saw the rise of Bombay, Calcutta, and Madras as major commercial centers. Merchants and artisans were relocated to "Black Towns" established by European companies within these new cities, while the European rulers occupied superior residences.